Citation (in Chicago Style, please let me know if I am using the wrong citation method for journals):
Safai, P. D., et. al., "Chemical Composition of precipitation during 1984-2002 at Pune, India," Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 1705–1714, accessed October 7, 2010. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2003.12.016.
Abstract: The area studied is the change of chemical makeup of precipitation over time in Pune, India. The compounds found to have risen in concentratoin are SO4 and NO3, due to increased automotive and industrial emissions. Calcium presence has gradually decreased, because Ca is a product of open space, and Pune isdeveloping. Although Ca has the tendency to neutralize precipitation and it is in low concentrations, the pH of this area's precipitation in the "alkaline range," at 6.25. If the tendency of SO4 and NO3 rising continues, the public health will be damaged like other natural occurrences of highly acidic precipitation and cloud cover, due to air pollution.
Where do the authors work, and what are their areas of expertise? Note any other publications by the authors with relevance to the 6Cities project.
PD Safai, GA Momin, K Ali, DM Chate, PS Praveen, PSP Rao
All of the authors work at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, which is in Pune, India, the city studied.
Topics of study for these researchers: climate change, atmospheric chemistry, aerosol science, atmospheric aerosols. Much of their work is done studying air pollution and concentration of black carbon in the atmosphere and rainwater, sometimes related to seasonal trends, like monsoons.
Seen are studies done in two of the Indian cities of interest: Pune and Delhi. Posted in the selective pages links to these articles.
What are the main findings or arguments presented in the article or report?
Findings:
Increase in concentration (significant): SO4, NO3
Decrease in conc. (significant): pH (very important), HCO3
Average annual precipitation pH decreased from 7.10, in 1984, to below 6.80 (1999 was at 6.39). The overall average pH was 6.60.
The diagram above shows the average chemical compositions of the rainwater tested. Calcium is the most prevalent, and acts to neutralize the rainwater. The power of Ca as a neutralizer is strong (described later).
Most of the growing concentrations are from anthropogenic sources, because of human actions and processes that produce air pollution.
The article pushes for more studies on the chemical makeup of precipitation, because there is very little existing material on the subject.
Describe at least three ways that the argument is supported.
The argument is introduced by establishing atmospheric chemistry as a problem: industrial development leads to more chemicals in the atmosphere, and therefore, different compositions in rainwater reaching the people, plants, and infrastructure of Pune, India.
The results and discussion section describes the measurements and findings of the experiment. Referring to the increase in SO4 and NO3 concentration in precipitation, and neutralization dominated by Ca, the article states that two other experiments found parallel results. Another experiment found decreasing pH. Another study supports the assignment of components to sources, found through correlation analysis. This supports the credibility of their findings.
The results found are backed up by reasons why. The ions prominent are assigned sources through correlation analysis, with arguments for why they increased.
Correlation analysis
"pH was mainly related with HCO3, Ca, Mgand seasalt"
Based on its strong correlation with Ca and seasalt, "the major portion of SO4 was in the form of salts with soil/sea originated constituents"
"NO3 showed some correlation with K and Ca (r= 0:30) indicating towards the formation of its salts with the crustal components".
Enrichment factors (process described in methods)
"SO4 was highly enriched for soil source (EF ¼ 30), but contribution from marine source was also significant (EF ¼ 14)"
"About 71% of total SO4 was contributed by anthropogenic sources while 21% was contributed from marine and 8% from soil source"
NO3 tested to be from 99% anthropogenic sources and some soil sources
This could have been done more strongly. The sources were mentioned, not described.
The assigned anthropogenic sources of these compounds put the blame of acidity in precipitation on air pollution via human activity.
What three (or more) quotes capture the message of the article or report?
"An assessment of the chemical composition of precipitation at Pune during1984–2002 revealed that the pH of precipitation though in alkaline range, showed gradual decreasing trend, mainly due to the increasing acidic constituents, NO3 and SO4, and simultaneously decreasingalkaline constituents, especially, Ca."
"NO3 contributed more (55%) than SO4 towards acidification of rain, indicatingthe impact of vehicular emissions. About 71% SO4 originated from man-made sources followed by sea (21%) and soil (8%)."
"In the absence of Ca and NH4, pH of precipitation could have been <<4.00."
Ca in the form of CaCO3 and CaSO4
"Significantly high concentrations of Ca have been reported in precipitation as well as aerosol samples over Pune, which has been attributed to the transport of soil dust from the Arabian Peninsula to the west coast of India"
What were the methods, tools and/or data used to produce the claims or arguments made in the article or report?
Samples were taken from the Indian Institute of Technology Madras (10 m above ground), collection material cleaned daily to prevent settling of particles in the ambient air. pH of the samples were taken and then analyzed via spectophotometry (for Cl, SO4, NO3 and NH4) and via atomic absorption spectophotometry (for Na, K, Ca, and Mg). HCO3 concentration was calculated through pH and CO2 partial pressure data.
The measurements were statistically analyzed.
Acidifying and neutralizing potentials:
Fractional Acidity (FA) =[H+]/ ([SO4 2]+[NO3 ])
The closer to 0, the stronger the neutralization. 0.013 was the average, neutralization overpowered 99% of the acidity.
Average was 1.33. The potential for the neutralizing compounds (Ca) is larger than the potential of the acidic compounds. This describes why the increase in SO4 and NO3 didn't dramatically affect the pH.
Measuring enrichment factors were used to support the assumed sources of the ions present in the precipitation (Na reflect marine material, Ca reflect soil material).
EF for soil= [X/Ca]sample / [X/Ca]crust
EF for marine= [X/Na]sample / [X/Na]sea
How (if at all) are health disparities or other equity issues addressed in the article or report?
The health disparities addressed are the difference in rain fall composition between 1984 and 2002. The precipitation has become more acidic and therefore more hazardous for plants, animals, and infrastructure.
A disparity assumed from the text was the inability to use the information. The article proposes further study but does not reflect too much on the impact or possible solutions for the problem presented. Therefore, only other scientists can apply this work.
Where has this article or report been referenced or discussed? (In some journals, you can see this in a sidebar.)
The article has been referenced in international studies on air pollution and precipitation (China, Jordan, Greece, Spain) but also in similar studies of the chemical content of clouds, dew, and rain in the United States (New Jersey) and on a global scale.
The research was cited by an article on a very similar topic. I could possibly use this article as an annotation to focus on studying Pune's sources of air pollution for the particular effects described in this article, because the sources were not described explicitly.
Can you learn anything from the article or report’s bibliography that tells us something about how the article or report was produced?
The bibliography has an assortment of diverse sources, from studies in Turkey, Sweden, Malaysia, Germany, Canada the US, China, Singapore, and all over India. In addition, there are no government sources cited in this paper. I would say the sources represent the article as an objective source of information.
What three points, details or references from the text did you follow up on to advance your understanding of how air pollution science has been produced and used in governance and education in different settings?
I looked into sources of CaCO3 and CaSO4, how the neutralizers get released into the atmosphere.
Calcium carbonate is found in the form of limestone and other geological sources, as well as in the shells of aquatic animals. It is used in construction (not as much though, because it can get damaged by acid rain), in the oil industry for, in maintaining the pH of swimming pools, and in many other uses. For environmental applications, it is used in the process of "liming," to treat acidicification of water and soil.
Calcium sulfate is found in the form of gypsum and anhydrite, released into the atmosphere as "evaporites." It is used and emitted into the air from fossil fuel processing,
Both sources have industrial applications. Although industrial pollution is the cause for the decrease in precipitation pH, some industrial emissions (like these) contribute to the neutralization.
I reviewed the abstract and conclusion of the article mentioned previously that cited this one ("Influence of local sources on rainwater chemistry over Pune region, India"). The article seems to have very similar findings and focus to this one. The alkaline pH's are higher because of Ca abundance. Cl, HCO3, and SO4 are the most dominant components found. The components are "related to various sources, such as soil dust, sea salts, biomass burning and agricultural activities." These are more specific sources than described in this article. I still think it may be worthy of an annotation.
I searched more information about Pune, India's air quality. I found an Air Quality Index site, with 6 different monitors that report on PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, NO2, and CO. Hadapsar, Pune had dangerously high levels of PM2.5.
- Citation (in Chicago Style, please let me know if I am using the wrong citation method for journals):
- Abstract: The area studied is the change of chemical makeup of precipitation over time in Pune, India. The compounds found to have risen in concentratoin are SO4 and NO3, due to increased automotive and industrial emissions. Calcium presence has gradually decreased, because Ca is a product of open space, and Pune isdeveloping. Although Ca has the tendency to neutralize precipitation and it is in low concentrations, the pH of this area's precipitation in the "alkaline range," at 6.25. If the tendency of SO4 and NO3 rising continues, the public health will be damaged like other natural occurrences of highly acidic precipitation and cloud cover, due to air pollution.
Where do the authors work, and what are their areas of expertise? Note any other publications by the authors with relevance to the 6Cities project.Safai, P. D., et. al., "Chemical Composition of precipitation during 1984-2002 at Pune, India," Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 1705–1714, accessed October 7, 2010. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2003.12.016.
- PD Safai, GA Momin, K Ali, DM Chate, PS Praveen, PSP Rao
- All of the authors work at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, which is in Pune, India, the city studied.
- Topics of study for these researchers: climate change, atmospheric chemistry, aerosol science, atmospheric aerosols. Much of their work is done studying air pollution and concentration of black carbon in the atmosphere and rainwater, sometimes related to seasonal trends, like monsoons.
- Seen are studies done in two of the Indian cities of interest: Pune and Delhi. Posted in the selective pages links to these articles.
What are the main findings or arguments presented in the article or report?- Findings:
- Increase in concentration (significant): SO4, NO3
- Decrease in conc. (significant): pH (very important), HCO3
- Average annual precipitation pH decreased from 7.10, in 1984, to below 6.80 (1999 was at 6.39). The overall average pH was 6.60.
- The diagram above shows the average chemical compositions of the rainwater tested. Calcium is the most prevalent, and acts to neutralize the rainwater. The power of Ca as a neutralizer is strong (described later).
- Most of the growing concentrations are from anthropogenic sources, because of human actions and processes that produce air pollution.
- The article pushes for more studies on the chemical makeup of precipitation, because there is very little existing material on the subject.
Describe at least three ways that the argument is supported.- The argument is introduced by establishing atmospheric chemistry as a problem: industrial development leads to more chemicals in the atmosphere, and therefore, different compositions in rainwater reaching the people, plants, and infrastructure of Pune, India.
- The results and discussion section describes the measurements and findings of the experiment. Referring to the increase in SO4 and NO3 concentration in precipitation, and neutralization dominated by Ca, the article states that two other experiments found parallel results. Another experiment found decreasing pH. Another study supports the assignment of components to sources, found through correlation analysis. This supports the credibility of their findings.
- The results found are backed up by reasons why. The ions prominent are assigned sources through correlation analysis, with arguments for why they increased.
- Correlation analysis
- "pH was mainly related with HCO3, Ca, Mgand seasalt"
- Based on its strong correlation with Ca and seasalt, "the major portion of SO4 was in the form of salts with soil/sea originated constituents"
- "NO3 showed some correlation with K and Ca (r= 0:30) indicating towards the formation of its salts with the crustal components".
- Enrichment factors (process described in methods)
- "SO4 was highly enriched for soil source (EF ¼ 30), but contribution from marine source was also significant (EF ¼ 14)"
- "About 71% of total SO4 was contributed by anthropogenic sources while 21% was contributed from marine and 8% from soil source"
- NO3 tested to be from 99% anthropogenic sources and some soil sources
- This could have been done more strongly. The sources were mentioned, not described.
- The assigned anthropogenic sources of these compounds put the blame of acidity in precipitation on air pollution via human activity.
What three (or more) quotes capture the message of the article or report?- "An assessment of the chemical composition of precipitation at Pune during1984–2002 revealed that the pH of precipitation though in alkaline range, showed gradual decreasing trend, mainly due to the increasing acidic constituents, NO3 and SO4, and simultaneously decreasingalkaline constituents, especially, Ca."
- "NO3 contributed more (55%) than SO4 towards acidification of rain, indicatingthe impact of vehicular emissions. About 71% SO4 originated from man-made sources followed by sea (21%) and soil (8%)."
- "In the absence of Ca and NH4, pH of precipitation could have been <<4.00."
- Ca in the form of CaCO3 and CaSO4
- "Significantly high concentrations of Ca have been reported in precipitation as well as aerosol samples over Pune, which has been attributed to the transport of soil dust from the Arabian Peninsula to the west coast of India"
What were the methods, tools and/or data used to produce the claims or arguments made in the article or report?- Samples were taken from the Indian Institute of Technology Madras (10 m above ground), collection material cleaned daily to prevent settling of particles in the ambient air. pH of the samples were taken and then analyzed via spectophotometry (for Cl, SO4, NO3 and NH4) and via atomic absorption spectophotometry (for Na, K, Ca, and Mg). HCO3 concentration was calculated through pH and CO2 partial pressure data.
- The measurements were statistically analyzed.
- Acidifying and neutralizing potentials:
- Fractional Acidity (FA) =[H+]/ ([SO4 2]+[NO3 ])
- The closer to 0, the stronger the neutralization. 0.013 was the average, neutralization overpowered 99% of the acidity.
- Neutralizing potential/acidifying potentials= NP/AP=[Ca2+]+[NH3 +]/[SO4 2]+[NO3 +].
- Average was 1.33. The potential for the neutralizing compounds (Ca) is larger than the potential of the acidic compounds. This describes why the increase in SO4 and NO3 didn't dramatically affect the pH.
- Measuring enrichment factors were used to support the assumed sources of the ions present in the precipitation (Na reflect marine material, Ca reflect soil material).
- EF for soil= [X/Ca]sample / [X/Ca]crust
- EF for marine= [X/Na]sample / [X/Na]sea
How (if at all) are health disparities or other equity issues addressed in the article or report?- The health disparities addressed are the difference in rain fall composition between 1984 and 2002. The precipitation has become more acidic and therefore more hazardous for plants, animals, and infrastructure.
- A disparity assumed from the text was the inability to use the information. The article proposes further study but does not reflect too much on the impact or possible solutions for the problem presented. Therefore, only other scientists can apply this work.
Where has this article or report been referenced or discussed? (In some journals, you can see this in a sidebar.)- The article has been referenced in international studies on air pollution and precipitation (China, Jordan, Greece, Spain) but also in similar studies of the chemical content of clouds, dew, and rain in the United States (New Jersey) and on a global scale.
- The research was cited by an article on a very similar topic. I could possibly use this article as an annotation to focus on studying Pune's sources of air pollution for the particular effects described in this article, because the sources were not described explicitly.
- Influence of local sources on rainwater chemistry over Pune region, India
Can you learn anything from the article or report’s bibliography that tells us something about how the article or report was produced?- The bibliography has an assortment of diverse sources, from studies in Turkey, Sweden, Malaysia, Germany, Canada the US, China, Singapore, and all over India. In addition, there are no government sources cited in this paper. I would say the sources represent the article as an objective source of information.
What three points, details or references from the text did you follow up on to advance your understanding of how air pollution science has been produced and used in governance and education in different settings?